THE MANGROVES OF ZANZIBAR .
Valuable Resources under threat
1) Yussuf Kombo, 2) Soud M Jumah and 3) Makame Kitwana
November,2008
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. 0) Introduction
1.1 Size and Geographical Location
Zanzibar located in the Indian ocean, just off the coast of East Africa, lying at 390 East and 60 South of Equator with two main islands Unguja and Pemba forming an area of .Unguja 660km2and Pemba 2640 sq Km. Zanzibar is a small archipelago in the United Republic of Tanzania (URT) with her own internal government. The economy of the islands relies mainly on cloves and the recent growing tourism industry for export. Agricultural contributes about 50% of the national GDP and employs nearly 70% (ZFDP, 1993) of labor force that earns about 90% of export value. The contribution of the forestry sector (including mangroves) to the national economy is not calculated separately from the agricultural sector. The total land under agriculture and forestry is about 99%. Forestry woodlands cover about 16.2% of the total land, while grazing land and cultivated land cover 40.9% and 41.6%, respectively. Mangroves cover areas of 20,000 ha of the Zanzibar land covering almost 7.0
According to Tanzania Census (2002), Zanzibar inhabits 0.98 million people with annual population growth rate of 3.3% and the estimated average population density is about 300 people per Km2.
The climates tropical and maritime, and follows the monsoon winds (Poyry, 1987) with two main rain seasons – long rains (masika) occurs between March and June (masika and the short rains (vuli) occur between October and ends in December. The highest temperatures occur during the short dry season with a maximum mean of 33oC in Unguja and 29oC in Pemba. The minimum temperatures for Unguja and Pemba are 23.3oC and 21.1oC, respectively (Wirth et al, 1988).
2.0) Mangroves of Zanzibar
The islands of Zanzibar are endowed with mangrove vegetation estimated to cover nearly 7.0 % (16000 ha) of the total land area. The mangrove forest area is the second largest natural forest vegetation, after the coral rag thicket which is estimated to cover 40% of the total land area. However information on the mangroves of Zanzibar is scanty. Griffith (1949) enumerated the mangrove species found in the many mangrove forest stands in Zanzibar, however, still no detailed deep studies on the mangroves of Zanzibar leaving the island with no country wide information.
For instance, most studies on mangroves in Tanzania have concentrated on the mainland coastal zone and estuaries. Few studies have been done in Chwaka Bay of Unguja Island. In 1992, for instance, Semesi carried out an extensive survey on the distribution, status coverage, stand height and density in several stands along most of the coastal strip of the mainland and came up with elaborate management plans for managing the mangroves on mainland Tanzania (Madeweya et all 2002). Kitwana (2001) conducted a study on Socio-economic of the proposed mangroves board walk using willingness to pay and cost benefit analysis- a case study in Michamvi villages. Madeweya and colleagues (2001) carried a Socio-economic study related to mangroves extraction in Chwaka bay. Leskinen and Ali (1997) conducted a biomass inventory for the whole Islands that led the way for further development of terrestrial species research. Recently, terrestrial biodiversity study by Nahonyo et al (2002) has gathered sufficient information and revealed a number of new important floral and faunal species of scientific values in Jozani Chwaka Bay National Park in Zanzibar..
Although mangroves are legally protected since 1965 in Zanzibar, the ever increasing exploitation created by several factors makes it difficulty to effectively put in force the acts and regulations. As result, and thus illegal harvesting, clearing and investments (e.g. salt pans) in mangroves is exploitation of mangroves taking place all over the islands. While humiliation to mangroves is at alarming rates, Kitwana (2001) suggested that “Mangrove-associated species play very crucial role and form important component of transitional biodiversity in the mangrove ecosystem of Zanzibar.
2.1 Mangrove species of Zanzibar
Madeweya et all (2001) reported that, there are nine species of mangroves found in Chwaka bay namely Rhizophora mucronata (Mkoko magondi), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Msisi/Mfinzi), Ceriops tagal (Mkandaa/Mkoko mwekundu), Xylocarpus granatum (Mkomafi/Mkaumwa/ Mkuo), Xylocarpus molucensis (Mkaumwa wa kijani), Heritiera littoralis (Msikundazi), Avicennia marina (Mchu), Lumnitzera racemosa (Kilalamba jike and Sonneratia alba (mlilana). Citing Jumah 2001, Madeweya et al (2001) added that another species have been recorded around Chwaka bay, which has not been recorded before in Zanzibar, these include Pemphis acidula and Xylocarpus moluccensis. However, Shunula (1990) pointed out that the later was previously recognized to grow at Michamvi
3.0 Threats to mangroves ecosystem
3.1 Over harvesting:
Population pressure constitutes the major threat to the environmental integrity of Zanzibar. A high human population growth rate on a limited land area means a high demand and utilization pressure on finite forests and other forms of natural resources. This may often lead to serious deforestation and general degradation of resources. According to the 2002 census, the total population of Zanzibar was estimated to be 0.98 million people, with an annual growth rate of 3.3% with an average population density of 300/km2.
The trend of mangrove product utilization closely follows demand, in response to population growth. Preliminary surveys have revealed that in 1996, there was a demand for mangrove wood products equal to 66702m3. It has been predicted that this demand will rise to about 940630 m3 by the year 2006. Earlier estimates had put the total mangrove volume for the whole of Zanzibar to be about 640,000m3 (Amour 1993, unpl.). The situation seems to be disastrous as Leskinen et all (1997) reported a total volume of 641,100m3.. Although this figure is out dated but at least can give us a picture of the situation and provides us with a way forward for further research on mangroves and alternative sources.
The trend of mangrove product utilization closely follows demand, in response to population growth. Preliminary surveys have revealed that in 1996, there was a demand for mangrove wood products equal to 66702m3. It has been predicted that this demand will rise to about 940630 m3 by the year 2006. Earlier estimates had put the total mangrove volume for the whole of Zanzibar to be about 640,000m3 (Amour 1993, unpl.). The situation seems to be disastrous as Leskinen et all (1997) reported a total volume of 641,100m3.. Although this figure is out dated but at least can give us a picture of the situation and provides us with a way forward for further research on mangroves and alternative sources.
Another aspect which has favored wasteful use of the mangrove resources is that the local communities living adjacent to mangrove forests have often been ignored in the planning and implementation of management options. These local communities are major users and are also the closest and most effective custodians of these forest resources. This exclusion has created a feeling that these forests do not belong to them and therefore they are not responsible for their protection or management. This has led to uncontrolled, indiscriminate and wasteful exploitation of the resources. Most of the local communities are also not well informed about mangroves and have a feeling that these resources are infinite. These points to the importance of community awareness and participation in resource management.
In the year 1949, Griffith recommended that deliberate efforts be taken to prepare management plans for the mangroves of Zanzibar in order to promote the sustainable utilization of these valuable resources. Unfortunately, since that nothing has been done to effectively halt the wasteful use of these resources. As a consequence, the degradation of mangrove forests has been accelerating with time. In 1989 for instance, the mangrove forest at Micheweni in Pemba had among the best growing forests on the islands (Shunula 1990), however in 1999, that forest had been completely mutilated (Soud, 2001). Many mangrove areas have been destroyed and many others are under threat of destruction (Linden1995).The destruction of mangrove forests is at least as serious as in the deforestation of the terrestrial forests, despite this fact very few studies have been undertaken on mangrove forests until recently (Bittner, 1996). Among the existing threats are:
3.2 Oil spill:
In the year 1949, Griffith recommended that deliberate efforts be taken to prepare management plans for the mangroves of Zanzibar in order to promote the sustainable utilization of these valuable resources. Unfortunately, since that nothing has been done to effectively halt the wasteful use of these resources. As a consequence, the degradation of mangrove forests has been accelerating with time. In 1989 for instance, the mangrove forest at Micheweni in Pemba had among the best growing forests on the islands (Shunula 1990), however in 1999, that forest had been completely mutilated (Soud, 2001). Many mangrove areas have been destroyed and many others are under threat of destruction (Linden1995).The destruction of mangrove forests is at least as serious as in the deforestation of the terrestrial forests, despite this fact very few studies have been undertaken on mangrove forests until recently (Bittner, 1996). Among the existing threats are:
3.2 Oil spill:
In Wesha Pemba mangrove are facing the threat from oil spill resulting from tanker unloading. Mangroves have been wiped ou around the pot leading dead stumps helplessly.
3.3 Salt making: The investment has consumed huge areas in pemba with shallow waters
3.4 Tourism industry:
the coastal tourism industry in Zanzibar can have negative impact to mangroves of the island as investors are looking for beaches.
3.5 Night moths larvae attacking mangroves
3.5 Night moths larvae attacking mangroves
Mangroves of Micheweni, Muwambe and Wesha villages (Pemba) have been invaded by the night moths larvae (unidentified yet). These larvae attack young planted mangroves and the near by agriculture tree species such as mango trees. The investigation has found that mango trees and Dovyalis species have been attacked as well
3.6 Seaweed farming
i) The use of mangroves sticks in sea wed farming
This has been noted in many villages in Pemba especially northern villages of Sizini and Micheweni, are making use mangroves in sea weed farming, However, the use is not severely detrimental, although deeper study on social, cultural and economic impacts is needed.
ii) Tramping and clearing:
The cultivation of seaweed in shallow waters is believed to have negative impact to mangroves
4.0 Socio-economic importance of individual species
Individual species and economic uses
1) Avicenia marina: Firewood, charcoal, medicine (leaves), Poles, timber, seaweed farming sticks
2) Bruguiera gymnorrhiza: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber, boat ribs, seaweed farming sticks
3) Heritiera litoralis: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber, sea weed farming sticks
4) Lumnitzera racemosa: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber,
5) Rhizophora mucronata: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber, boat ribs, sea weed farming sticks
6) Sonneratia alba: Firewood, charcoal, Poles, timber, sea weed farming sticks
7) Xylocarpus granatum: Firewood, charcoal, medicine (seed, leaves and barks), Poles, timber
8) Pemphis ocidual: Light firewood, medicine
9) Xylocarpus moluccensis: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber
10) Ceriops tagal: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber
5.0 Zanzibar Policy Statements on Mangroves.
4.0 Socio-economic importance of individual species
Individual species and economic uses
1) Avicenia marina: Firewood, charcoal, medicine (leaves), Poles, timber, seaweed farming sticks
2) Bruguiera gymnorrhiza: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber, boat ribs, seaweed farming sticks
3) Heritiera litoralis: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber, sea weed farming sticks
4) Lumnitzera racemosa: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber,
5) Rhizophora mucronata: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber, boat ribs, sea weed farming sticks
6) Sonneratia alba: Firewood, charcoal, Poles, timber, sea weed farming sticks
7) Xylocarpus granatum: Firewood, charcoal, medicine (seed, leaves and barks), Poles, timber
8) Pemphis ocidual: Light firewood, medicine
9) Xylocarpus moluccensis: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber
10) Ceriops tagal: Firewood, charcoal, medicine, Poles, timber
5.0 Zanzibar Policy Statements on Mangroves.
5.1 Zational Goals and Objectives on mangroves
The national overall goal of mangroves conservation is to improve people’s livelihoods while maintaining mangrove ecosystem integrity and productivity.
i) Intermediate Goal 1: To enhance the contribution of mangroves ecosystem to the economy of the surrounding communities by rational utilization of mangrove ecosystem on a sustainable basis.
The national overall goal of mangroves conservation is to improve people’s livelihoods while maintaining mangrove ecosystem integrity and productivity.
i) Intermediate Goal 1: To enhance the contribution of mangroves ecosystem to the economy of the surrounding communities by rational utilization of mangrove ecosystem on a sustainable basis.
ii) Intermediate Goal 2: To maintain a habitat for the flora and fauna of this unique ecosystem.
iii) Intermediate Goal 3: To improve Institutional capabilities of the body responsible for mangrove management.
iii) Intermediate Goal 4: To empower and recognize the needs of communities in mangrove management.
6.0 Conclusio and Remarks
iii) Intermediate Goal 3: To improve Institutional capabilities of the body responsible for mangrove management.
iii) Intermediate Goal 4: To empower and recognize the needs of communities in mangrove management.
6.0 Conclusio and Remarks
Mangroves of Zanzibar like many other mangroves ecosystems are crucial in biodiversity conservation and sustaining livelihood of coastal communities. They form an important connection between terrestrial and marines creatures by providing habitat and essential food. Their role in coastal erosion control is incredible.
Coastal community becoming aware of the importance of mangroves, however, poverty retards their eagerness to conservation. They initiatives in small scale projects in mangroves is an indication that mangroves have the potential of accommodating human efforts toward biodiversity conservation.
The conservation and utilization of mangroves need specific studies of associated flora and fauna. Impact as a result of investments and development projects also nee to be documented and where possible mitigation measures to be taken. In Zanzibar for instance board walk and beekeeping in mangroves seems to be environmental safe project. Crabs farming is becoming popular, while salt making seem to be questionable.
Coastal community becoming aware of the importance of mangroves, however, poverty retards their eagerness to conservation. They initiatives in small scale projects in mangroves is an indication that mangroves have the potential of accommodating human efforts toward biodiversity conservation.
The conservation and utilization of mangroves need specific studies of associated flora and fauna. Impact as a result of investments and development projects also nee to be documented and where possible mitigation measures to be taken. In Zanzibar for instance board walk and beekeeping in mangroves seems to be environmental safe project. Crabs farming is becoming popular, while salt making seem to be questionable.
Until recently, efforts to conserve natural flora and fauna in Zanzibar have been focused on Jozani and Ngezi terrestrial forests. Management plans were prepared with assistance of CARE –Tanzania and the Department of Commercial Crops and Forestry of Zanzibar. On the other hand the mangrove forests have not received much attention. They have remained largely as open access unprotected resources despite the fact that they have been legally recognized as forest reserves under the forest reserve decree of 1965. Attempts at management of these resources have also encountered difficulties for large areas such as Chwaka
6.1 Recommendations
i) Detailed study on mangroves stocking, regeneration, uses and alternative sources
ii) Developed strong national wide management plan that empower community in mangroves management
iii) Joint management of mangroves between stake holders especially investors need to be prioritized
iv) Community management of Natural resources should be put in place as a strategy for improvement of successful implementation
v) Where possible allow individual to own their own mangroves farms
7.0 Bibliography
Agaloos, B. D. 1994. Re-afforestation of mangrove forest in the republic of Phillipines. In: JAM/NMCT. The Proceeding of the Workshop on ITTO ‘Development and Dissemination of Re-afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests’, 18 20th April 1994, Bangkok, Thailand. ITTO, JAM, NMCT, pp 75 – 98.
Akil J. M. and N. S. Jiddawi (2001) A Preliminary Observation of the Flora and Fauna of Jozani-Pete Mangrove Creek, Zanzibar – Tanzania. 343 – 357. In Richmond, M. D. and J. Francis (eds) Marine Sciences Development in Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the 20th Aniversary Conference in Marine Sciences in Tanzania 28th June –1st July 1999, Zanzibar Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA.
Aksornkoae, S.; Maxwell, G. S.; Havanond, S. and Panichsako, S. 1992. Plants in Mangrove. Bangkok 10310, Thailand. Chalongrat Co., Ltd. ISBN 974 – 98011 - 7 – 3. Pp 120.
Alongi, D. M. (1998) Coastal Ecosystem Process. Australian Institute of Marine Sciences, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. CRC Press 419pp
Alvarez-Leon R. and Garcia-Hansen I. (2003) BIODIVERSITY associated with Mangroves in Colombia. Universidad de La Sabana. Volume 3# 1: November 2003: ISME/GLOMIS Electronic Journal
Anon. (2004) Mangrove Management in the Northern Territory.
Barnes, D.K.A. and J.J. Bell (2002). Coastal Sponge Communities of the West Indian Ocean.
Bittner A.,(1996) Natural resources and Development, Focus: Mangrove forests, Vol.43/44, p9ff, Institute for scientific Co-operation, Tubingen. Maier, Rottenburg.
Makame, M. K., Ali, R. Kh. and Masoud, T. S. 9 (2001): Integrate conservation development programmes (icd) .Experience from Jozani – Chwaka Bay Conservation Project (JCBCP), Zanzibar
CARE- Tanzania (Zanzibar): Matumizi Endelevu ya Maliasili na Maendeleo ya Jamii, Ngezi-Vumawimbi (MEMMA). (Sustainable Resource Use and Community Development on
Commission for Natural Resources (CNR) Zanzibar, 1995. National Forest Policy for Zanzibar. CNR. Pp18.
Davie, J.D.S. (1984). Structural variation, Litter production and nutrient status of mangrove vegetation in Moreton Bay. In: Covacerich, J., R. Coleman and P. Davie (eds) Focus on Stradbroke. Brisbane: Stradbroke Island Management Organisation and Boolarong Publications pp 208-223.
Davie, J.D.S. (1987). Mangrove Ecosystem in Australia. In: Field C. D. and A.J. Dartnall (eds). Mangrove Ecosystem of Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of the Research for Development Seminar held at the Austarlian Intitute of marine Sciences. Townsvile, Australia 18th –25th May 1985. pp 3-23.
DCCFF (2003 ): Project Proposal for the Kiwengwa-Pongwe Forest Reserve Conservation Project. Submitted for GLOBAL CONSERVATION FUND.
Environmental study Series 5. Department of Environment Zanzibar.
FAO, 1992. Mangrove for charcoal. A vanishing sustainable wood fuel resource system. The case of Yeesarn, Upper Gulf of Thailand. Bangkok, 1992. GCP/RAS/131 NET, Filed document number 30. Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, pp 41.
FAO, 1994. Mangrove Forest Management Guidelines. FRDB, FRD, FAO Forestry paper No. 117, Rome, pp 319.
Förstle, A. and Vierkötter, R. (1997). Marine Green Book. A Pocket-encyclopedia of Marine life and Marine activities on the Zanzibar Achipelago. Green Ocean International pp 154.
GoZ, 1997. The Forest Resources Management and Conservation Act No. 10 of 1996. Legal Supplement (Part I) to the Zanzibar Government Vol. No 5769 of 6th December 1997. Government Press.
Grifiths, A. L. 1949 Reconaissance Report on the forest problems of the Zanzibar Protectorate. 1-50. Govt. Printer ,Zanzibar.
Gunasekaran, S. (1991) Mangrove Ecosystem of mathupet (Tamil Nandu) and its Environmental Characteristics. PhD Thesis University of Madras, India. 208pp.
Hamdani S.I and Jumah (200?); Synopsis of Mangroves Ecosysmes in Zanzibar. Problems and Prospects.
Havanond S. 1994b. Re-afforestation of Mangrove Forest in Thailand. In: JAM/NMCT. The Proceeding of the Workshop on ITTO ‘Development and Dissemination of Re-afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests’, 18 20th April 1994, Bangkok, Thailand. ITTO, JAM, NMCT, pp 203 – 216.
Havanond, S. 1994a. Charcoal Production in Farm Mangroves in Thailand. In: JAM/NMCT. The Proceeding of the Workshop on ITTO ‘Development and Dissemination of Re-afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests’, 18 20th April 1994, Bangkok, Thailand. ITTO, JAM, NMCT, pp 39 – 51.
Higaki, M. 1994. Development and Dissemination of Re-afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests. In: JAM/NMCT. The Proceeding of the Workshop on ITTO ‘Development and Dissemination of Re-afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests’, 18 20th April 1994, Bangkok, Thailand. ITTO, JAM, NMCT, pp 28 – 29.
Jayatissa L. P., F. Dahdouh-Guebas and N. Koedam (2002) A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. The linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2002, 138, 29-43.
Katto, S. 1994. Physiology and Mangroves plants (Part I). In: JAM/NMCT. The Proceeding of the Workshop on ITTO ‘Development and Dissemination of Re-afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests’, 18 20th April 1994, Bangkok, Thailand. ITTO, JAM, NMCT, pp 52 – 63.
Kombo, Y. H. and M. K. Makame 2000. Mangrove and Livelihood of Zanzibaris: Potentials and crisis. CNR, pp 12 (Unpublished).
Leskinen J; Pohjonen V and Mbarouk SA (1997): Wood biomass inventory of Zanzibar Islands. Zanzibar Development project Technical paper No. 40. Sub Commission for Forestry (Zanzibar) with Finnida (Helsinki) and Finnish Forest & Park Services (Vantaa).
Linden O. Jernolov A.,(1980) The mangrove swamp-An Ecosytem in danger. Vol 9 no 2, pp. 81-88.
Lugo, A.E. (1980). Mangrove Ecosystem: Success ional or Steady State?. Biotropic, 12 (suppl.) 65-72.
Malimbwi, R. E., solberg G. and Luoga E. J. 1994. Estimation of Biomass and Volume in Miombo Woodland at Kitulanghalo Forest Reserve, Tanzania. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 7: 230 – 242.
Masoud, T. S. 2001. Linking Conservation and Community Development: A Case for JCBCA. Paper prepared for IHP.
Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment (MTNRE), 1991. Management Plan for the Mangrove Ecosystem of Mainland Tanzania. Mangrove Management Plan of Pangani District. Forest and Beekeeping Division, Catchment Forestry Project, Volume 2, Part I pp 48 and Part II pp 11.
Mohammed S. M. with contributions from Machano H., Zubeir H., Jidawi N. and Ngazi Z. 1999. The Ecology and Socio-conomy of Chwaka Bay Zanzibar. Report prepared for Jozani Chwaka Bay Conservation Project, CARE, Tanzania.
Nahonyo, C. L., Mwasumbi, L.B., Eliapenda, S., Msuya, C. Mwansasu, C., Suya, T. M., Mponda, B. O. and Kihaule, P. (2002). Jozani - Chwaka Bay Proposed National Park Biodiversity Inventory Report. Forestry Technical Paper 141. DCCFF, Zanzibar. Department of Zoology and Marine Biology University of Dar Es Salaam, P. O. Box 35064, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, zoology@udsm.ac.tz.
Nasser S. M. 1994. Socio-economic and Ecological Study of Mangrove Forest Management in Zanzibar, Tanzania. A case from Chwaka Bay. MSc Thesis, Norwegian Centre for International Agriculture Development, Agricultural University of Norway.
Shunula J.P. 1996. Ecological Studies On Selected Mangrove Swamps In Zanzibar. PhD. Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam. 270pp.
Shunula, J. P. (1996). Ecological Studies on Selected Mangrove Swamps in Zanzibar. PhD Thesis University of Dar es Salaam - Tanzania. 270pp.
Shunula, J. P. 1990. A survey on the distribution and status of mangrove forests of Zanzibar.
Zamora, P. M. (1986) The Role of mangrove Forest as a Life support System. Proceeding of the workshop on conversion of mangrove area to aquaculture. Llilo City – visayas, Philippines 24 – 26 April 1986. 7 -13p
Jumah, S.M, Mohamed M,J, Machano, H and Mwinyi AA (2001) An inventory of the mangrove forest Resources of Chwaka bay Conservation area. Department of Commercial Crops Fruits and Forestry, and Jozani and Chwaka bay Conservation Project - Zanzibar
ZFDP (1993):
Tanzania census (2002): United republic of tanzania census - 2002
Wirth et all (1988): Zanzibar coconut development project
Poyry (1987): Zanzibaf forestry management plan
Madeweya KH, Basha AU and Said TA (2002): Scio economic study related to mangroves extraction in Chwaka Bay. CARE (Tanzania), Jozani and Chwaka bay Conservation Project
Kitwana MK (2001): Economic study of the proposed mangroves board walkusing willingness to pay and cost benefit analysis. A case if Michamvi village Zanzibar. (a special project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requiremet for the bachelor of Science in Forestry of the Sokoine University of agriculture – Tanzania)
Semesi (1992)
